General Qi Jiguang & the Wokou Pirates

Portrait of General Qi Jiguang

General Qi Jiguang (戚繼光, Qījìguāng; 1528 to 1588) is remembered as a hero in Chinese culture. He was an accomplished military commander, who defended his nation repeatedly against foreign invaders. He was also an accomplished martial artist, whose innovative tactics and writings are of critical importance today in understanding the historical context of classical Chinese martial methods.

Qi is most often remembered as one of the key leaders in the campaigns against the devastating pirate raids going on during his lifetime. To combat this threat he completely overhauled the way the soldiers under his command were trained and deployed. Qi was highly critical and outspoken regarding martial arts practice in general during his day, as well as many of the common military tactics and training in use by the army at the time.

Qi Jiguang received his first post as military commander at the age of 17, after the death of his father. He was later sent to take the Imperial examinations in the capital city of Beijing at the age of 22. 

The regular Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) military was in shambles during the later years of the Dynasty. By the mid-16th century, the Imperial Army was significantly undermanned and poorly organized for a professional military fighting force. The situation was so bad that in 1550 a Mongol Prince was able to freely loot the suburbs of the capital city. During this siege of Beijing, all the martial artists and military officers in the city, there for the Imperial exams, were recruited for defense. It was during this battle Qi was recognized by commanders, and even the Emperor, as being a capable and courageous potential military talent.

In 1553 Qi was given his first major military post. It was during this time he began to understand the condition of the Ming Dynasty military. The troops were poorly funded and lacked training and the required military discipline. Additionally, many of the military fortifications were in disrepair due to neglect. He would have to make changes if he was to achieve the mission he had been given of combating the growing pirate threat.

These groups of pirates were collectively called Wōkòu (倭寇). This name literally means “dwarf pirates” and was meant to be a slur against the Japanese, who were believed to constitute the majority of their ranks. These groups of pirates and mercenaries routinely raided the Korean and Chinese coasts for centuries, reaching an apex during the 16th century. Although they are often called “Japanese pirates,” in reality these pirate groups were made up not only of Japanese but ethnic Koreans and Chinese as well. There were even known to have been some Portuguese among their ranks. Men from all manner of marginalized groups during these centuries of political and military upheaval and famine became part of these various Wokou operations. 

Even among those merchants and sailors attempting to engage in legal commerce, trade with foreigners was illegal in most instances. This closed down a major potential avenue of business for many Chinese merchants in the coastal regions. As a result, many of those engaging in illegal operations believed they had been forced into piracy to make a living or had been made outlaws after being caught by Ming naval forces engaging in illicit commerce. A large number of people were also forced into piracy (essentially slavery) at the point of a weapon by Wokou gang leaders. 

Ming Dynasty painting of a pirate battle.

While the Wokou pirate raids went on for centuries, they were particularly brutal during the reign of the Jiajing Emperor (lived 1507-1567; reigned 1521-1567) in the Ming Dynasty. The Ming had started out strong, taking power after ousting the Mongol Yuan Dynasty (1279–1368). However, after the first couple of generations of experienced Ming military leaders passed away, the Dynasty’s military establishment began to atrophy and rot from the inside. Eventually, it became weak and essentially ineffective.

During this time much of the military was made up of local militias (non-professional soldiers) and a hereditary system of military commanders. General Qi was instrumental in promoting a full-time, paid, professional fighting force. To take on the threat of aggressive piracy with which he had been tasked, Qi Jiguang had to recruit and train new units from within the local militias. To do this he supported the standardization of tactics and equipment, eventually even writing a manual on military efficiency. He needed units that were able to fight the Japanese swordsmen and were fast enough to intercept the pirates as they raided.

These pirate gangs raided and utilized an irregular method of warfare, and the Japanese-style swordsmen in the pirate ranks were well-practiced in their swordcraft. The slow response and tactics of the regular Ming government military proved to be ineffective against the pirate’s methods. Originally Qi was granted only 3000 men to combat the pirates, however, eventually, the numbers were increased dramatically once his methods proved effective.

Eventually, he was allowed to institute training and recruitment protocols. He devised a tactic to use spears, polearms and rudimentary firearms to stay out of the range of the pirates fencing methods, called the Mandarin Duck Squad Formation (鴛鴦陣; yuānyāng zhèn). This method of small unit tactics was highly innovative, and not commonly seen on Chinese battlefields at this time. The use of this particular unit formation and tactic required soldiers to aggressively close distance with their opponents and quickly take them out. The General required his soldiers to be in top physical condition and trained them in a strict regimen of martial arts. General Qi believed in using the most straightforward, simple and effective methods, writing “pretty is not practical and practical is not pretty,”

Basic Mandarin Duck formation

His response to the pirates, rather than engage in a direct sword battle, was to utilize better training of his own men, and the use of long weapons. The standard Japanese sword was held with two hands and was longer than the standard Chinese saber, which was utilized with one hand. General Qi Jiguang also trained his soldiers in empty-hand martial arts. He certainly understood unarmed methods were not useful for warfare, however, he insisted empty-hand combative training was useful for developing toughness and courage in his fighters.

It should be noted that the Wokou were not exclusively swordsmen. They used bows and long spears extensively, like most other fighting forces. Qi Ji Guang himself wrote in one of his military treatises, the “Practical Arrangement of Military Training” (練兵實紀, Liànbīng shí jì), “Government troops use only long shields and short sabers, while Wokou use long spears and heavy arrows.” It had been observed that the outdated and undisciplined regular Chinese Ming forces, and their strategies, had performed especially poorly in close range combat with Wokou fighters. The Wokou, however, hardly had any cavalry capability, which would have been impractical for their type of amphibious quick raids.

His new training methodologies were first put to the test in 1559, with their first battle against pirate activities. While this was successful, it is important to remember that the pirates were not one centrally controlled group, but rather many elusive groups spread through the entire coastal regions of China, Japan and Korea. The campaigns against the pirates were protracted, and certainly not without losses.

This military campaign is also famous in Shaolin martial arts history due to the enlistment of monastic soldiers by the government, from Shaolin as well as from the other monasteries. Monastic soldiers are well documented to have participated in four known battles, including one where 120 monastic fighters killed over 100 pirates while sustaining only for casualties themselves. The monks in this unit probably came from more than one monastery, however, its commander, Tianyuan, was from Shaolin. It is worthy of note that he earned this position by defeating eight other monastic warriors in both empty hand and weapon combat.

The final major campaign against these pirates is considered to have taken place in the fall of 1565, in the battle on Nan’ao island, just off the coast of southern China, roughly even with the southern tip of Taiwan. Qi Jiguang was one of the major commanders, along with his longtime friend and colleague, General Yu Dayou (1503–1579) who was also famous for being an accomplished martial artist and military commander. After a few smaller “cleanup” campaigns, the Wokou threat was considered stamped out by 1567.

Qi Jiguang’s Mandarin Duck Formation played an important role in these operations against the pirate forces. The basic Mandarin Duck squad was made up of two teams of five soldiers and a squad leader. These two teams paired together are the source of the name “mandarin duck”, as these birds are often seen in pairs. Each team had one swordsman who acted as that team’s leader, one fighter wielding the “Wolf Brush” (狼筅, Láng xiǎn; a long spear with many branch-like arms), two wielding long spears and one with a trident-type weapon called Tǎng bǎ (钂鈀).

Wolf Brush / Lang xian

Tang pa

The Wolf Brush is certainly an interesting weapon and essentially acted as a mobile wire obstacle. While it was clearly an effective counter to Japanese sword, it wasn’t specifically designed for this role and had existed before General Qi’s inclusion in his new squad formation. It had been effective against pretty much every cold weapon by virtue of being a defensive weapon.

Of the Lang Xian, Wú Shū (吴殳; a.k.a. Wu Yan; 1611 to 1695), a historian, martial artist and martial scholar who lived in the closing days of the Ming dynasty and into the early succeeding Qing Dynasty, wrote in his book the “Army Record” (手臂錄, Shǒubì lù): “The Lang Xian has thirteen layers of branches that can defend against arrow, defend against horse, defend against rolling saber, and defend against long spear. (It is) the best of weapons. However (it is) heavy and cannot kill, which is its disadvantage.”

When confronting enemy forces, the swordsmen (one with a circular rattan shield, and one with a larger tower shield) crouched at the front rank to protect all those behind them with their shields. Once the squad engaged in first contact with the enemy, the swordsman with the circular rattan shield could throw a javelin and make a fast charge toward the enemy. The swordsman with the larger shield (Āi pái, 挨牌) would function as a protective cover. The Lang Xian were projected over the heads of the swordsman and the spearmen guarded the left and right flanks of the Lang Xian. If the enemy managed to get past the Lang Xian and spearmen they had to face the shorter but no less deadly Tang ba. 

The Mandarin Duck Formation was also very versatile and adaptable. A rigid, large army structure functioned poorly in the treacherous wetland regions found throughout much of Southern China. The regular Ming army found this out the difficult way. The Mandarin Duck Formation filled the need for a military unit able to change formation at a moment’s notice. It was capable of functioning on a small scale when only a small force was required. It could easily be further divided by the squad leader into smaller units if terrain or circumstances made it necessary. However, it worked equally well in a large-scale battle where many squads could be deployed together.

After successfully suppressing the pirate problem, Qi was put in charge of training for the elite Imperial Guards. Later still he was tasked with repairing sections of the Great Wall and beefing up the Ming’s defensive capabilities against the northern invaders.

During the 1570s, he engaged in many battles with potential Mongol invaders, keeping this threat to Ming rule at bay. During this period he also wrote the text New Book on Military Efficiency (Jì xiào xīnshū; 紀效新書), on military matters and martial arts. This book was considered an important military reference material for Ming commanders from that time on. 

In his later years, Qi’s political power and influence began to wane. Most of his friends and patrons had died, and he became the victim of the political maneuverings of corrupt court officials. In 1583 he was removed from duty. He lived out the rest of his life in poor health and in the poverty of semi-exile, dying early in the winter of 1588. Today, General Qi’s writing is an invaluable source for the historical study of Chinese martial and military arts.

Below are links to two Chinese videos demonstrating the unique small squad formation and strategy General Qi designed for use against the Pirates. Each soldier in the squad would have been well drilled by Qi and his commanders in the use of these martial techniques. This formation was specifically designed to cut through the ranks of Wokou swordsmen.

https://www.facebook.com/teng.long.545/videos/2656308801100152/UzpfSTEwMDAwOTkzMDI0ODc0NjpWSzo4MDQ0MTU1MjMzMTg3OTI/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rd9FMGG9Mp0

 

Introduction to Basic Straight Sword Practice | 劍術 jiànshù or 劍法 jiànfǎ

The Chinese characters jianshu and jianfa mean “sword art” and “sword method”, respectively. These terms are often used interchangeably to refer to the practice of classical Chinese double-edged sword and/or fencing methods. Likewise, a practitioner of sword fencing is called jiànkè (劍客); literally a “sword guest”. 

In many methods of Chinese martial art, sword is considered on of the four foundational weapon training methods (along with staff, saber and spear), and is often learned after a basic level of skill and competence has been achieved in the previous three weapons. I usually recommend that beginning sword students start with a light sword. This allows you to keep the hand, wrist, elbow, and shoulder relaxed and able to perform the movements properly. Once proficiency has been achieved, they may progress to a heavier sword, if desired. If a heavy sword is used right away, the student is very likely to overcompensate for the weight and the unfamiliar movement when they are first learning. 

The student should also begin practice by performing the basic stokes relatively slowly (about half speed) and move smoothly and fluidly. At the same time, however, the strikes should “snap” with a flicking and snapping of the wrist. Only once their technical execution is smooth and well connected should they progress to moving swiftly. If one starts with heavy swords, moving too quickly too early in training, there can be a tendency to use too much force or tension in the movements and improper habits will develop at the very beginning. The maxim I often invoke is that “slow is smooth, and smooth is fast.”

What is commonly called the straight sword (or simply “sword”; 劍, jiàn) encompasses both light and heavy constructions. The light sword is called by some schools the “scholar sword” (文劍 wénjiàn) and it is primarily a defensive style. It uses re-directions and counter-strikes. Because of its lightweight construction, it is not designed to withstand direct blocks and clashes with other weapons. Most other weapons are heavier and stronger constructed. By comparison, battle weapons were not designed for daily carrying (just like battle armor) and as a result were much heavier than weapons carried for personal defense. The scholar sword was thinner and lighter because it was carried daily for protection or personal duels. It was designed to take on very small numbers of lightly armored opponents, which was the opposite intention for its battlefield counterpart.

The techniques utilized differed as well. The battle sword (武劍 wǔjiàn; “military sword) was thicker and wider and could be used for heavier blocks and strikes, utilizing much more of the blade. It could also be wielded with one or two hands. However, with its heavier construction, it could not move as swiftly or be “snapped”. The heavier the weapon, the less a fighter can use the swiftness and flexibility of the wrist and the more they had to engage the arm (elbow and shoulder).

The lighter scholar sword relies on swift movement with little or no direct blocking. Attacks primarily consisted of thrusting, cutting, and cleaving with just the tip of the blade. Thrusts to vital organs and cutting and nicking arteries and tendons (particularly in the sword hand, wrist, or arm) were the main target areas.

 

Long-Handled Saber or “Big Knife” | Da Dao / Guan Dao / Pu Dao

Modern Guandao

This imposing looking weapon is essentially a heavy, short saber on a pole. There are many different designs which varied significantly during different periods of Chinese history. The key feature to the long handled saber was its sharp, and extremely heavy, metal head (which could weight up to 40 lbs, though around 25 lbs was more common), which was common to all long handled sabers.

This variety of bladed weapon evolved from the saber and dates back to the Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE). Saber was one of the first bladed weapons used in China. The primary techniques of the saber are stabbing and slashing movements. The long, heavy pole was added to the saber to give the practitioner more control and leverage, and to allow it to block other heavy and/or long weapons. The proper practice of this weapon requires a foundation of speed and power. Many variations exist, including differences in size, weight, blade length and size. Included in this extended “family” of weapons are any long-handled weapon with a single-edged blade.

 

Guanyu with his guandao

The most well known example is the Guāndāo (關刀; “blade of Guanyu”), which legend states first appeared in the Three Kingdom period (221-280 CE) and was used by General Guānyǔ (關羽, died 220 CE) (Guan, Yu-Chang). This style of weapon is commonly called Yǎnyuèdāo (偃月刀; “reclining moon blade”). Guan’s personal weapon was called “Green Dragon Reclining Moon Saber” (青龍偃月刀, Qīng lóng yǎnyuèdāo) or simply “Green Dragon Saber” (青龍刀, Qīng lóng dāo). The Guandao was very heavy, and it requires great strength to handle in battle. It is thought Guanyu’s personal weapon was about eight chi long (the ancient chi measurement was not standardized and one chi was approximately 12 to 14 inches), and weighed nearly 90 pounds. Therefore it was not practical for most people who did not possess the great legendary strength of General Guan.

 

Author practicing Shaolin guandao

The Guandao has most commonly been used for training purposes in many different Chinese martial arts, to build strength and endurance, to aid in enhancing the practitioner’s skills with lighter blades. Generally, the saber of the Guandao had a notch or hook in the back of the blade for catching and parrying an enemy’s weapon. The handle was made of either metal or hard wood that had been soaked in oil, primarily based upon the combatant’s preference. A wooden shaft would be lighter and quicker overall, but the weapon’s weight distribution would be more front heavy, due to the blade, and the shaft would not be as strong for blocking and intercepting. The metal shaft would better balance the blade along the length and provide more blocking and striking power, but would obviously be a heavier weapon overall.

Another long handled Saber was called a “Dashing Saber” (撲刀, Pū dāo) by Northern martial artists. This kind of saber did not have a notch or hook on the spine of the blade. Sometimes it had heavy rings on the back of the blade which would add weight. The primary use of this model was for ground soldiers to attack the enemy’s horses.

Pudao; lighter and smaller than guandao

Long-handled Sabers were generally used for horse-to-horse fighting, however, some of the lighter varieties were also used for ground-versus-horseback (mostly to chop the horse’s legs) and ground-to-ground fighting. This weapon was intended as a battlefield weapon, and was not generally a personal defense weapon. On the battlefield this weapon was a behemoth. It uses clearing techniques often to injure surrounding soldiers and utilizes momentum to make it extremely difficult (if not impossible) for those with lighter weapons to block or deflect it directly.

Shaolin Staff Fighting | 少林棍法 / Shàolín gùn fǎ | Shaolin rod/stick/pole Method

The art of Chinese staff “fencing” is called gun shu (棍术; literally “staff art”). “Gun” is the basic training of long weapons and the spear is its highest and most complex form. The four styles of dao, gun, jian, and qiang offer two basic and two advanced practices. If one can learn these four well, they will be able to pick up almost any weapon and be skillful.

Many systems mix spear and staff techniques because they are so similar; staff techniques work with a spear and vice versa. Staff techniques comprise about 70% of all long weapon’s fighting techniques. In both Shaolin and Taijiquan training, you focus on sticking and adhering in high-level staff fighting training. Once you touch your opponent, you stick with them. It is the same theory as pushing and sticking hands.

Shaolin staff method training drills are flexible enough to be practiced in a, so called, “external” or “internal” style, depending on the focus of the practitioner. This is why Shaolin staff method is the foundation of so much long weapon training.

In-depth combat training does not come from forms sequence practice. You have to train the basic drills for a length of time. You will only become truly skillful through practicing basic training skills from all positions and learning them intuitively. It should be noted that drilling the basic techniques by themselves are vastly more important than practicing paired forms.

 

History & Physical Construction

Bian Dan – “carrying the pole”. It evolved from long poles used for carrying water buckets, or other heavy parcels balanced on both ends.

Qi Mei Gun – “same height as eyebrows”. This is not an additional division of weapon fighting techniques,

but refers to the size of the weapon only. The northern version was a tapered weapon, while the southern variant was of equal diameter on both ends.

The Northern pole was made of white wax wood (bai la gan), which is a subspecies of Privet. The wood was treated by soaking in linseed oil (tong you) for anywhere from 6 months to 2 years. The weapon usually measured 9 to 12 feet and was primarily used by foot soldiers against mounted troops. Speed was the emphasis of this style of staff. The southern staff was usually made of hardwood. These techniques emphasize power and strength.

In ancient times, prior to the Ming Dynasty (1368 to 1644), the stick was the primary training and fighting method of Shaolin Temple gongfu. At this time many masters did not practice any form of empty hand methods. This clearly illustrates the importance of the stick method in Shaolin training. The staff represents the Shaolin Spirit; it is a symbol of everything Shaolin is. As a weapon it is simple, strong, resilient, and unassuming. Lacking blades it can even be considered compassionate, as much as a fighting implement can be.

 

Grip

Basic Grip: one hand yin and one hand yang (one face up, one face down). In this way, one hand balances the other. This type of grip allows for easy manipulation of the staff.

• Standard/Normal Grip (zhēng shǒu – 正手): the thumbs of both hands point forward, toward the tip
• Reverse Grip (fǎn shǒu – 反手): the thumbs of both hands point backward, toward the base of the of the staff.

 

For more in depth information on the history and practice of Shaolin staff methods, please see my previous two-part article:

History & Evolution of Shaolin Temple Staff Fighting Part 1

History and Evolution of Shaolin Temple Staff Fighting Part 2

Fighting Fan | Shān / 扇 | Yáng Tàijíquán Shān / 杨太极拳扇

Modern metal ribbed martial arts fan

The use of hand fans as a weapon in Chinese gongfu is an interesting development. While certainly not a weapon for the battlefield, the fan became a deceptive and even improvised tool of defense. Even today in many warmer climates or seasons in Asia, both men and women can be seen carrying hand fans to help remain cool. The sight of anyone with a fan in old China would have been as common as someone with a cell phone today. In places or times where weapons would not be permitted, common objects such as hand fans, canes and walking sticks would not arouse suspicion.

In China, fans were both practical and beautiful, and their use began very early in Chinese history. Fans used by martial artists were made of wood (bamboo and other kinds), or more commonly, metal. The outer edge could be made extremely sharp, and even spring-loaded darts were sometimes hidden in the ribs. These spring-loaded darts were utilized for close range surprise attacks. Fans were perhaps the most easily hidden weapons, because they could be kept in plain sight. A martial artist with a fan in hand could, at one moment, appear as an elegant scholar, and in the next, a deadly fighter. Fans, with razor-sharp edges, could be used to cut, strike or slide (intercept and deflect, not directly blocking). When closed, even a wooden fan becomes a small club that could easily fracture the small bones of the hand or wrist. The closed metal fan is a powerful small rod. The closed fan could also be used to thrust and poke vital targets, and the base end protruding just past the bottom of the grip, can greatly increase the destructive power of a hammer fist blow or other similar strike.

Today, fan practice is often associated with Taijiquan, though it became common in many divisions of classic Chinese martial arts in the middle and late Qing dynasty (1644-1912) and beyond. For the martial arts of Shaolin gongfu and Taijiquan, the metal fan is most often preferred. This Fan is also known as the Iron Fan (tiě shān; 铁扇) in Chinese. The “wing” of the fan can also come in several different forms, ranging from nylon or silk for beginners to metal fans composed of iron and steel for more advanced practitioners. 

Another variation includes bamboo slats with blades attached at the ends. Originally, standard fixed fans (the kinds that do not open or close) woven from bamboo were used as a symbol of social status in early Chinese history. Over time, they became weaponized due to the fact that they were versatile and compact, while still retaining an aesthetic appeal.

Generally, a Taiji fan can be used to block projectiles and even parry hand-held swords or other similar weapons. Along with its block and parry attributes, the fan can be folded to form a short club that is heavy enough to smash against enemies and inflict damage. The size of these weapons typically makes them easy to conceal, thereby allowing them to be hidden during combat situations. Some battlefield legends tell of these fans playing a part in saving the lives of unarmed warriors caught in ambushes or surprise attacks. Fans became particularly popular among both male and female martial artists during the Ming dynasty, between 1368 and 1644.

Yang style taiji fan form is smooth and graceful, slow and even-paced. This style of practice is conducive to re-adjusting one’s nerves and relaxing one’s body and mind. The Yang Taiji fan’s pace is said to imitate a cat’s walk and it’s motion looks as if pulling silk. The Yang style Taiji Fan utilizes traditional folk fan skills while possessing the basic skills and characteristics of Yang style Taijiquan. In Taijiquan forms practice, use of an instrument (saber, sword, fan, taiji ball, taiji ruler, etc.) is intended to focus the yi (intent of the mind). Relaxation and smoothness are very important, and movements are performed at a steady, even pace.

Taiji weapon forms contain many pauses between movements, but it is important not to interrupt the flow of focus and intent. This sometimes causes beginners to get distracted in weapons practice. A break in the external flow of movement does not equal a break in the flow of the internal aspects and components. Taiji is considered “internal” practice because it focuses on the feeling, rather than solely the external technique.

Double Hook Swords | shuāng gōu | 雙鉤 (双钩)

19th Century examples of the hook sword.

The hook swords are an interesting construction variant upon the short weapons found in classical martial arts training. Its methods are a combination of techniques of sword/saber (the long, straight sharpened section), cane or hook (the hooked section, which was also sharp), and dagger (which extends down past the handle. The Crescent Moon guard over the grip would be used for blocking, trapping, and striking. Being in the short weapons family, the hook sword can be seen to share about 70-80% of its basic techniques and strategies with other sword/saber methods, with the remainder arising from the unique qualities of its construction.

These weapons were difficult and dangerous to wield because the weapon is sharp in every direction. The hooked sword would have been a terror on the ancient battlefield. There was no surface on the sword that was not razor sharp. While most often seen today practiced in pairs, this is really a more recent development, most likely to enhance skill and awareness with a weapon that, if not used properly, or in a careless manner, could be more dangerous to the wielder than their target. A more practical method for the warrior would have been a single sword in their strong hand with a light shield in the other. The shield could be used to block, stall their opponent’s weapon, to distract, or to strike them directly, opening them for attack with the sword.

The long straight section of the blade could be sharpened on one or both sides. This section utilizes the qualities of a saber (if single-edged) or sword (double-edged).

The hooked section could be sharp both on the inside of the hook and on the outside. It was used to hook and lock an opponent’s weapon, to hook and pull down a shield or their weapon, to disarm, or thrust with the curved and sharpened tip. The hook could catch and pull away muscle or tendon from the body, sever the opponent’s wrist or ankle, or even to bring down a horse. The hooks would also be used by the foot soldier to hook and catch the flesh or armor of a mounted soldier in order to pull them down to the ground.

The crescent blade protected the gripping hand. One could also use its sharpened edge to strike directly. The curved character of the blade could be used to deflect, stall or momentarily catch an incoming strike. The top and bottom section that supports the crescent (parallel bars between the main body and the crescent) can also be used to catch an opponent’s weapon.

Crescent blade and dagger.

The dagger on the bottom could be used to stab or slash forward, upward or downward. This section of the weapon requires skill and awareness in use because it has a much shorter reach (allowing it to be used when fighting collapses into a tighter distance range where the longer section may be more difficult to utilize), but also because it often points back toward the wielder and could potentially be just as dangerous to them!

Author with double hook swords.

 

 

 

Chinese Daggers | Bǐ Shǒu | 匕首

Antique Chinese Martial Arts daggers with modern practice versions.

The Chinese word Bǐ (匕) refers to a “dagger” or “ladle” (the shape of an ancient eating utensil akin to a soup ladle). Shǒu (首) means “head,” “leader,” “chief.”

The dagger, as defined in Chinese martial arts, was a short weapon (with a blade shorter than the length of the practitioner’s forearm). The Chinese dagger was not often emphasized in formal battlefield martial arts training. One often cited reason is because it was used by assassins to kill by surprise. But there is another simple reason.

Chinese martial arts are often divided into inaccurate categories. One such division is northern and southern, and it is often said that northern systems focus mostly on kicks and southern ones mostly on upper body techniques. This is a gross oversimplification. Many northern systems have highly refined upper body methods, and there are plenty of southern styles that make use of highly developed kicking methods. But, if we must use the ultimately unsatisfactory classification system of “northern” and “southern”, let us look at the history and function of the system or style.

All systems of traditional martial arts are adapted to, and evolve out of, a particular time and place in history. When we remove them from their cultural and historical context, we can begin to lose perspective on their focus and function. What follows is an oversimplification, and there are many exceptions, but it serves an illustrative purpose.

Many of the so-called “northern” methods arose out of the military arts practiced by soldiers and military officers. These were arts used on the battlefield, meant for warfare. You see an emphasis placed on, for example, mobility and aerobic capacity (to take on multiple opponents in the protracted fighting environment of a battlefield), many weapons, and in the olden days archery and horsemanship. As a result, the military implements of that time are the focus of training, as is long and middle range combat methods.

Many of the “southern” methods arose around or after the fall of the Ming dynasty (in 1644) when Chinese martial arts overall began to refocus on empty-hand methods and less on weapons emphasis, because heavily armed civilian populations were likely to arouse the suspicion of the new Imperial government. They emphasized less movement to focus on fighting a smaller number of lighter armed and armored opponents. You also see a dramatic increase in training to fight in the urban environment, which in turn produced more improvised weapons training, such as the sitting bench which can be seen in several southern systems, and their focus on middle and close range combat.

Now, this is a sweeping generalization, but I think we can see this reflected by history. Perhaps risking oversimplifying even further, we can consider that northern methods were intended for military use (or later evolved from those methods intended for military applications), and southern methods designed for self-defense. This is not intended in anyway to be a value judgment on either approach, both have strengths and weaknesses. Each outlook will affect the system’s focus and evolution. As most of the methods I practice and teach come from the Northern Shaolin methods, my outlook and the techniques, strategies and tactics are shaped by this framework of the ancient battlefield arts.

Getting back to the daggers, we now have foundational knowledge to see the Shaolin dagger methods in the proper light. Dagger methods would not have been highly valued as a military skill because they would not be practical on the battlefield where combatants often had long weapons. Many soldiers would have a long-range primary weapon (such as a spear or lance, or perhaps a projectile weapons such as a bow) and a secondary shorter weapon (such as a saber). Other weapons such as short swords and daggers were carried, but not considered primary or secondary methods. That means that if one was fighting on the battlefield with a dagger, they had lost their other weapons and would be at a distinct disadvantage to other combatants who had much longer and heavier weapons.

You will see this reflected in the techniques and forms practiced in the Shaolin dagger training; there are lots of long sweeping movements, jumping and rolling, and reaching. These tactics were not designed to be used in one-on-one encounters with an unarmed opponent or someone else with a knife. They would be intended for the battlefield, against an aggressor who had a sword or spear.

The practitioner would have to duck, dodge, leap away, or in some other way avoid an attack (a dagger would be far too light to utilize direct blocking techniques), or perhaps redirect their weapon, then come in, getting past their considerable reach advantage in order to strike. One could, hopefully, employ some deception, or their opponent might make reckless moves based on overconfidence, but one would still have to use quick footwork and/or extended arm movements to reach an enemy using even a shorter length spear. Northern dagger techniques were generally employed as a method of last resort. They were often extensions of empty hand techniques, and were certainly used mostly in desperate circumstances, and frankly the odds were not in the dagger wielder’s favor.

Of course, these principles don’t have to be limited to the arena of the ancient battlefield. The principles can be easily modified by one who is proficient in them, or martial arts in general, into methods that are more appropriate to close range. Compact yet effective, dagger techniques can also be deployed using almost any sharp or pointed object, making them highly practical. Most often in Chinese martial arts the double edged dagger is used, however there are single-edged knives (单缘匕首, dān yuán bǐ​shǒu) which were utilized.

Bronze daggers emerged in the Zhou Dynasty (1046–256 BC). General Jīng kē (荊軻; ? – 227 BCE) is said to have used a poisoned dagger, in 227 BCE, to attempt assassination of King Ying Zheng of Qin (秦嬴政, Qín yíng zhèng; 259 BCE –  210 BCE), who was the first Qin Emperor (秦始皇, Qín shǐ huáng) and the first Emperor of China as a unified nation. This episode in Chinese history is depicted in several modern films, including The Emperor and the Assassin and Jet Li’s Hero.

Pages from a military long saber manual from the early 1600’s. Note the illustration on the left, the fighter is throwing a dagger to cover his advance forward to cut.

Daggers were often used by soldiers to accompany a long sword and could be thrown as a projectile weapon at long range, to injure or distract, either before or as the combat distance closed from the long range to a shorter distance. They were also often carried by government officials for self-defense purposes. Sometimes the dagger was used to make improvised weapons, such as lashing it to the end of a pole with a cord to make a spear (槍, qiāng), or to a rope to make a flying and retrievable dart (繩鏢, shéng biāo,  “rope dart” or “rope javelin”).

Modern gongfu rope javelin.

Although there are many styles of dagger methods used throughout history, in various regions of China, there are some general similarities between them.

There are three basic grips for dagger methods:

1. forward grip (blade on the thumb side)
2. reverse grip (blade on little finger side)
3. “flower picking” grip (for throwing)

With a forward grip, common techniques employed included: upward piercing (stab with blade vertical), upward horizontal piercing (blade horizontal), sideways piercing (stab from the side, blade horizontal) from outside, reverse piercing (horizontal from inside).

With the reverse grip, techniques included: oblique piercing (upward or downward and toward inside), used for wiping movements, cutting, and stabbing methods, right-hand wiping (slash across from outside), reverse wiping (slash from inside to outside), vertical cutting or “shaving” (push straight out with blade pointing down; as if vertical punching), vertical downward cutting (as if punching downward).

As previously mentioned, the flower picking grip was used for throwing the knife or dagger, either from the handle or blade.

Classically, many fighters used daggers in pairs, one in each hand. This double daggers practice is much more commonly found in Chinese martial arts today. There is also an additional grip for double-dagger use: Plum Blossom Grip – grip both daggers with one hand so a blade extends from each side. Based upon this sometimes used practice, another unique historical construction variation was the Méi Huā Bǐ​ (梅花匕; “Plum Blossom dagger”). This weapon utilized a single handle with blades protruding from both ends.

Plum Blossom methods include: right horizontal piercing (from outside moving in, with palm down), inner reverse piercing (from the inside out; palm up), horizontal cutting (as if horizontal punching straight out), downward cutting (punching straight down), Plum Blossom hand (rotating palm up and down).

Eyebrow Staff | Qí Méi Gùn | 齊眉棍

 

Shaolin practitioner with Eyebrow Staff

In ancient times, Shaolin martial artists practiced different kinds of staff weapons. Qí méi gùn, is a kind of staff construction (not the name of a specific form set or “style”) which was originally unique to the Shaolin Monastery, but is now widely practiced among many types of Chinese martial arts.

During Shaolin’s early history, knives and edged weapons were not allowed in the monastery, and in fact were outlawed by monastic regulations, except for those used as tools such as for cutting firewood, and cooking utensils. However, Buddhist monasteries, and in particular the large temple complexes such as Shaolin, contained large granaries and other provisions, as well as religious decorations and ritual objects made of precious metals. This made them attractive targets for bandits and renegade bands of rebels and invaders. Because of this situation staves were used to defend the monastery. According to Shaolin tradition, these staves were kept at the entrance gate and those who had learned the martial arts for a minimum of one year were taught staff fighting so that they could help protect the monastery. The correct length of this staff is measured to the users eyebrow – that is why it is called a ‘齊眉棍’ (literally “Same height/level with the eyebrow staff”). This weapon was used by both Songshan Shaolin and southern Shaolin styles. The old Songshan Shaolin Qi Mei Gun sets are quite a bit different from the Southern sets in terms of technique, the way the weapon is held, and the way power is generated. The ‘southern’ Shaolin, Qi Mei Gun, is a ‘double headed staff’ and therefore is mostly griped with both hands palms down. The Songshan Shaolin, Qi Mei Gun, has a single ‘head’ and ‘tail’, and is mostly griped with one hand, palm up, and the other, palm down. I would say that that this weapon has fallen into relative obscurity.

The primary benefit of this staff is its length. While, generally speaking, a longer staff was often preferred, the longer pole staff could be difficult or impossible to wield in any horizontal movements inside the fairly narrow confines of many of the temples walled walkways and corridors. Thus, the shortened Eyebrow staff was created.

An Overview of Chinese Straight Sword (part 3 of 3)

North Sword Method (北劍術, Běi Jiàn Shù) | Northern Long Fist Sword (北長拳劍, Běi Cháng​quán Jiàn)

“Jian” calligraphy

The sword serves a variety of purposes in the history and culture of Chinese martial arts practice:

• It was generally used as a defensive, rather than offensive, weapon. Because it is shorter than other large battle weapons, it lacks their long-range killing potential. The sword was often carried as a secondary weapon on the battlefield if the primary was lost or broken.
• In peacetime, it was treated as a self-defense tool and carried by scholars and magistrates as well soldiers.
• Often it showed the bearer’s status. Some swords carried by scholars were so ornate they were not practical for fighting (though this was unusual before the advent of the gun).

General specifications outline that the Northern sword should be 30 inches or longer. The weapon should balance at one third of its length from the hilt. If it does not, it will not handle properly.

Page from a classical jian manual

 

Structure and Technique

Common characteristics of northern swords and their fighting style:

• The swords are relatively long and narrow in order to reduce weight and increase handling. The average is 6 inches longer than the user’s arm length.
• Often the guard faces forward to catch an opponent’s weapon.
• More offensive or attack-oriented (than the “southern” variety) and specializes in middle to long range fighting.

Common characteristics of Southern swords and their fighting style:

• Short sword, averaging arm length, and relatively wide and thick, to increase weight and thereby the cutting power.
• Often the guard slants backward toward the hilt to slide the opponent’s weapon away to prepare for an attack at close range.
• The fighting style is more defensive, specializing in short to middle range fighting.

Because the sword is mainly a defensive weapon it requires a strategy of calmness in action, and to achieve this quality one needs patience, a placid mental state, and bravery. True mastery of the sword requires cultivation of loyalty, humility, and righteousness. The student should act only in the interest of righteousness and justice.

Only the bottom third of the blade is designed for vigorous blocking. The sharpened portion should not be allowed to contact another weapon. Therefore, a defensive attack without blocking is best and a sliding block followed by an attack is the second best. The least desirable defense is to block using the blunt area of the blade. One should avoid contacting the sharpened portions of the blade unless there is no other option.

The saber fighter will try to keep an enemy at the short and mid range in order to take advantage of the saber’s vigorous blocking and attacking power. To do this, the saber fighter always uses two hands together. One hand holds the saber while the other is used for coordination and balance or to grasp or impede of the enemies wrist, arm, or weapon. On the battlefield, the single hand saber was often employed with a shield in the other and, the two working together.

The jian fighter, however, tries to keep the enemy in the middle to long range in order to be able to use the razor-sharp tip effectively. Additionally, keeping some distance from the opponent, it is easier to avoid violent attacks. Because of the more refined power needed, the sword needs more technique, more skill, and more training time. Even though there are many differences, the saber is still the foundation of sword practice.

When power is extended into the sword, it is also projected from the extended fingers of the empty hand to balance the practitioner’s power and energy. This is known as the “invisible/secret sword”. The invisible sword can be made with the left or right hand and is also used for cavity presses and vital point attacks by high level practitioners.

Proper balance in the gripping of the weapon’s handle is critical in correct usage. If the grip is too tight you will lose flexibility and inhibit power and energy flow. If it is too loose, it is easy to be disarmed. The sword should be held like an egg, neither broken nor dropped.

At our school of Chinese martial arts, we practice two sword styles: Taiji Yang Sword and Northern Sword (楊氏太極劍, Yáng shì tài​jí​jiàn; 北少林劍, Běi Shào​lín​ ​jiàn). Both of these systems are based upon the Northern Shaolin Changquan (北少林長拳, Běi Shàolín Cháng​quán​; Shaolin Long Fist) system. Changquan sword is an umbrella term that covers numerous sub-styles and countless forms and compositions. It is unknown when and by whom the style was originally developed, however, its current form most likely originated in the Ming Dynasty (1368 to 1644), and was further refined through the Qing Dynasty (1644 to 1912). It can also be safely presumed the originator had considerable training in Shaolin style, or one of its derivatives. Changquan jian (長拳劍) is a middle to long-range sword style.

There are two ways to practice the form sets (which is the first level of sword practice); slow and swift. The beginner should practice slowly, focusing on relaxing unnecessary muscular tension and using “soft” or whipping power. If a sword novice tries to perform quickly, they will unconsciously carry too much tension, particularly in the wrist, forearm, and waist. Once you can relax, that is the appropriate time to focus on practicing quickly.

Since the scholar sword is lighter and it’s killing potential relatively weaker than the martial sword, the scholar sword is commonly used as a defensive weapon only. However, martial artists considered the sword to be the most versatile weapon.

Techniques for sword fighting can be complicated. Complications arise from the amount of leg and body coordination and connection involved in using the sword as the defensive weapon it was designed to be. An old Chinese metaphor commonly associated with swordplay was that, ideally, a martial artist resembles a flying Phoenix, flying away to avoid an attack. Only by avoiding or deflecting with the sword do opportunities arise to stab or cut the enemy.

 

Physical Conditioning for Sword

Students of jianshu (“sword art”) also need to develop physical attributes in their body and sword arm. This includes flexibility in the wrist, elbow, and shoulder, as well as strength, particularly the wrist, grip, and forearm.

Common sword arm exercises:

• Wrist flexibility and range of motion.
• Wrist rotations with a weighted stick.
• Wrist rolls (stick with a weight attached by a cord).
• Wrist flexes (with a fully extended staff).
  

  Sword Calligraphy

 

An Overview of Chinese Straight Sword (part 2 of 3)

Classifications of Straight Sword

By the middle to end of the Qing Dynasty era (the Dynasty ran in total from 1644 to 1912) Chinese sword-craft had reached its peak evolution, before being eclipsed by more modern technologies of war. For the sake of this discussion, we will say that, speaking generally, there were two classifications and three types of straight swords by this time. There is the scholar and warrior styles of swords, which may present in the two-handed, guard angled up, and guard angle down constructions. These divisions are not rigid, but only meant for discussional and illustrative purposes, and any individual sword may present with any combination of these listed qualities, or even many additional ones more unique to the individual practitioner or their school of fencing.

A Chinese jian (sword) can be of a “warrior” or “scholar” construction. Battle weapons were not designed nor intended for daily carrying (just like battle armor) and as a result were much heavier than weapons intended for personal defense. The “scholar sword” (文劍, wén jiàn) was thinner and lighter because it was carried daily for protection or personal duels. It was designed to take on very small numbers of lightly armored opponents, which was the opposite intention for its battlefield counterpart.

A warrior’s sword (武劍, wǔ jiàn) was heavy and thick bladed, and often times longer as well. The tough construction was to enable the weapon to withstand fighting multiple opponents, who also had heavy weapons, on the battlefield. The battle sword was thicker and wider and could be used for heavier blocks and strikes, utilizing much more of the blade. It could also be wielded with one or two hands. However, with its heavier construction, it could not move as swiftly or use as many “snapping” movements of the wrist. The heavier the weapon the less a fighter can use the swiftness and flexibility of the wrist, and the more they had to use power of body and the arm (elbow and shoulder). 

This type of heavy sword style is often seen more often in Shào​lín swordsmanship (少林劍法, Shào​lín jiàn​fǎ; 少林劍術, Shào​lín jiàn​shù​). Sometimes a Shaolin blade was not only thick and heavy, but also unsharpened, to make it less lethal, in accordance with the Shaolin Buddhist philosophy of life preservation. You don’t generally, in these older sets, see whipping and “flicking” sword movements coming lightly from the wrist, as you will often see on modern sword practice. In the Shaolin method you tend to see heavier strokes, cuts, and thrusts, with heavier blocks and deflections employed. Often the forms and training drills are performed at a slower pace, all reflecting the construction of the sword.

By contrast, the lighter varieties, today often referred to as Taiji swords (太極劍, tài​jí​jiàn​) or the scholar’s sword (文劍, wén jiàn) was often a little shorter and considerably lighter. It was often carried by learned men, rather than soldiers, for personal protection. Since it was carried on one’s person all the time, it did not need to stand up to prolonged combat with multiple, heavily armed opponent’s, therefore the sword was made much more manageable. The construction allowed for faster manipulation and lighter techniques with a much higher level of accuracy. Techniques used much less physical power, using momentum, whipping and relaxed movements of the wrist, however, the construction did not allow for heavy blocks or clashes with other weapons. The scholar sword method relies on swift movement with no direct blocking. Attacks primarily consisted of thrusting, cutting, and cleaving primarily with the tip of the blade. Thrusts to vital organs and cutting and nicking arteries and tendons (particularly in the sword hand, wrist, or arm) were the main target areas.  

The scholar sword is primarily a defensive style. This means it prefers to use evasion, redirections and counterstrikes. Because of its lightweight construction, it is not designed for direct blocks and clashes with other weapons; almost any other weapon is heavier and of stronger construction. This style of swordsmanship evolved to become highly refined and well respected, such as commonly found in the Wudang styles (武當劍法, Wǔ​dāng​ jiàn​fǎ; ​武當劍術, Wǔ​dāng​ jiàn​shù).

It should be noted that the sword was also seen as a status symbol (particularly in Ming and Qing eras, which lasted in total from 1368 to 1912) and many wealthy men began to wear them. As such people had great wealth, the weapon began to be decorated with gold, silver, gems and other precious and semi precious stones. Also, men not trained in sword skills or martial arts would have worn them as part of their dress. This led to beautifully decorated swords with little or no value as a real weapon, not unlike many pieces you can purchase today.

Within both of these classifications (the warrior and the scholar) there are three types: two-handed, guard angled up, and guard angle down.

The two-handed sword is longer with a longer handle in order to give the practitioner more control and leverage on the weapon and/or a greater potential cutting power. In the scholar style, the sword is often light enough to still be wielded with one hand. The warrior style must be used with two hands and begins to take on qualities that resemble European two-handed sword styles, or Japanese katana. Two-handed battle swords had longer, heavier blades to cut through armor as a battlefield weapon (compared to the lighter counterpart used for self-defense). Ideally, the length should be equal to the wielders height from ground to solar plexus. It was also used in the, so called, “internal” arts (nèi jiā, 內家) where practitioners focus on cultivating tremendous strength and power in the waist and connective tissues.

When the guard angles downward, toward the grip, this is the Ming style guard, as it was popular in the Ming Dynasty (1368 to 1644). The design is intended to deflect the opponent’s sword by sliding it off and away from the grip. It is a misconception that the Ming style guard is the “southern” style and the upward is the northern. This comes from the time of the fall of the Ming Dynasty in the mid 1600s. When they were overthrown by internal rebel uprisings, and then replaced with the Manchurian Qing government, the surviving members of the Ming family, along with Ming loyalists and officials, fled to the South of China. This is where many of the anti-Qing resistance movements arose and many of the great martial heroes of China came to prominence. Many of these people having Ming allegiance, many would have used such a sword.

The guard curved up away from the grip is more commonly seen in the Qing style, and was popularly used by the Manchus. This guard was designed to catch and hold an enemy’s sword, not to trap it, but as a momentary stall to break and stop their momentum and rhythm. This style is the most popular and common today.

Generally, the Qing swords are longer than the Ming. One reason for this is simply because the physical stature of the average Manchu was greater than that of the native Han Chinese. Generally, when the sword or saber is held by the grip behind your arm, it should reach your earlobe. Though, it should be noted that it is a popular misconception that most martial artists would have weapons made especially for them, their body type and fighting style. The simple truth is that most fighters used whatever they inherited or could afford, and most would not have been able to afford custom arms.

An Overview of Chinese Straight Sword (part 1 of 3)

Author in the mountains outside Shaolin Temple with a Chinese sword (jian).

Introduction

The practice of Chinese sword (劍, jiàn) and saber (dāo, 刀) share a majority of strokes, but with slight modifications to the movements, emphasis and intention. This is because sword is lighter, sharp on both sides, and only the bottom portion is used for blocking. The saber is heavier, can use more physical strength, blocks with the spine and lower portion of the blade, and only one side is sharp. Yet, despite those differences, they share about seventy percent of techniques. Once one has learned either the sword or saber well, they know a majority of techniques for all short weapons; sword and saber are the foundations of classical Chinese short and middle length weapons work.

The sword is often called “King of short weapons” because it requires high skill in use. This is because the sword method often prefers to avoid or parry an opponent’s weapon and counter strike, rather than block directly. Where saber work is generally much more offensive and overtly aggressive, whereas sword work prefers to allow the opponent to overextend their position, then capitalize on where they are exposed or off balance. Both of these strategies are derived from the lighter construction of the sword, particularly in later eras (sword construction is heavier the further one looks back in the past). It was lightweight because it would often be carried all the time, where a larger and heavier weapon may be too cumbersome. Yet this lighter construction meant the sword could not directly block larger or heavier weapons. In this way we can draw some parallels with the construction and strategy of the European rapier, which like the jian, was light, could be carried daily, was often used for dueling, and relied on quickness to neutralize the strengths of larger, heavier weapons. Neither of these weapons would perform well on the military battlefield where they would clash often with other weapons, and a warrior would face many heavily armed and armored opponents.

In the case of the Chinese sword and sword culture, it was also commonly believed the user must achieve heights in spirit and morality. This art form was developed over a period of more than 4000 years in China, and represents one of the highest developments of human culture. If a student persists and concentrates, the sword art can strengthen their mental, emotional and spiritual confidence and power.

Bronze jian from the Qin era (221-206 BCE), The first Imperial Dynasty of China. Note the short, wide blade.

Bronze jian of the Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE). Note the slightly longer & thinner blade due to improved technology over the Qin period.

The sword in China originated from the era of Huáng​ Dì (黃帝; 2698 – 2598 BCE), the mythical Yellow Emperor. During this period the sword had only a short and wide blade made from stone or jade. When metallurgical knowledge advanced, the blade was later made from brass, and later still, from iron. Over time the blade also improved by becoming narrower, longer, and sharper. “Modern” sword design and basic techniques began to evolve about 1000 years ago. In the past, the sword and scabbard were created as one interlocking assembly. Many well crafted sword scabbards were spring-loaded so the sword leaped slightly from the sheath when the latch was released. In more modern construction the sharp portion of the blade is used for stabbing and cutting, while the dull part to block and slide an opponent’s weapon.

In the 18th century firearms were introduced in China and further development of the swords and other martial arts as war implements slowed, and eventually ceased. Consequently, the physical construction, methods and strategies of swords and other weapons used for martial arts studies today generally remain in the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)  and Qing Dynasty (1644 – 1912) style.

The general length of the sword can range anywhere from 20 inches to 40 inches. Regardless of the total length of the weapon, the blade is divided into three zones: the tip third is very sharp and sometimes slightly flexible, the middle third which is less sharp and stiffer, and the lower end which is dull, wider and thicker, very stiff and used for blocking.

As a matter of martial etiquette, you always pass the sword to another person by the hilt and never the point; to do so is considered highly disrespectful. You also never handle another’s sword without permission and do not touch or breathe on the blade since this can cause corrosion damage to high quality steel.

Weapons practice in general teach Chinese martial arts students how to develop a connection between themselves in an inanimate object. Sword requires more mental focus and coordination than empty-hand techniques, and even more so than many other weapons. Sword practice is based on principles of relaxation, yielding, and using softness to overcome strength. Cuts and thrusts are constantly moving.

There are many old Chinese martial proverbs regarding the sword and its practice which are still adhered to today. Some of these include:

“… a good swordsman should appear perfectly calm like a fine lady,

but capable of quick action like a surprised Tiger.”

“Making your move after the opponent, but arriving before they do.”

“The saber is like a Tiger, the sword is like a flying Phoenix,

and the spear is like a swift Dragon.”

“100 days of fist, 1000 days of spear, 10,000 days of sword.”

 

Basic Chinese Straight Sword Construction

Basic anatomy of Chinese jian.

As previously outlined, generally, the blade is divided into thirds. The lower third of the double-edged sword blade is dull and thick for direct blocks. The second third is used for sliding and has a minor edge. The top third is razor sharp and only used for cutting and stabbing the opponent, and it is important this tip portion does not contact other weapons so the cutting edge is preserved. 

The northern sword blade length is judged by the distance from the wielder’s wrist to ear lobe. The southern style only reaches to the point of the shoulder, and because of this shorter length the southern sword was often used in pairs.

For sticking and adhering techniques it is important for the sword to balance approximately 1/3 down the length of the blade from the handle; that point is the axial center.

Most Chinese jian are sold today with decorative tassels attached to the pommel. Over the last couple of generations of Chinese sword practice, these tassels have been incorporated into the usage of the sword, and many practitioners take them to be a historical element of the sword. Originally, these evolved from a type of lanyard that was sometimes attached to the base of the handle or pommel of the sword which went around the practitioner’s wrist. This way if the weapon was dropped or otherwise disarmed, it was not completely lost, and could be regained. As martial arts skills became less useful for war, over time this practical lanyard became a simple decoration.

Straight Sword 劍術 (剑术) / 劍法 (剑法) jiàn shù / jiàn fǎ – Straight Sword Art / Method

Modern jian designed from historical models by Laoshi Scott Rodell.

In Chinese martial arts, sword and saber share a majority of techniques. Once one has learned either the sword or saber, they know approximately seventy percent of techniques for all short weapons. Sword and saber form the foundations for the short weapons classification. Sword and saber share the majority of strokes, but with slight differences in how the movements are executed and how power is expressed. This is because sword is lighter, sharp on both sides, and only the bottom portion is used for direct blocking. The saber is heavier, can use more physical strength, blocks with the spine and lower portion of the blade, and only one side is sharp. They share about seventy percent of basic techniques.

 

Construction

Speaking to its general historical construction, the lower third of the double-edged sword blade is dull and thick for heavy blocks. The second third is used for sliding and has a minor edge. The top third is razor sharp and only used for cutting and stabbing the opponent; one would avoid contacting other weapons with this portion. For sticking and adhering techniques it is important for the sword to balance approximately 1/3 down the length of the blade from the handle; that point is the axial center.

The Northern sword blade length is judged by the distance from the wielder’s wrist to ear lobe. The southern style only reaches to the point of the shoulder, and because of this shorter length the southern sword was often used in pairs.

Two-handed swords had longer, heavier blades to cut through armor as a battlefield weapon (compared to the lighter counterpart used for self-defense). Ideally, the length should be equal to the wielders height from ground to solar plexus. It was also used in the, so called, “internal” arts where practitioners developed great internal strength and power, learning to hold and move the weight of the sword in the central part of the body, rather than the arm alone.

 

Sword Secret Hand Form (Invisible Sword) / 劍訣; jiàn jué

The practitioner usually always holds the empty hand in this formation, however, there were some sword schools who did not use it and instead utilized the normal flat open palm.

 

External purpose of the Invisible Sword:

1. To balance the body in thrusting and cutting movements.
2. As a gentle brace of the sword wrist in pushing and pulling movements (forward, back, and side to side). This produces more balance, stability and accuracy (similar to pistol or archery marksmanship).

 

Internal purpose of the Invisible Sword:

1. Sword techniques stick and adhere to the opponent and their weapon, which depends on one’s ability to feel the opponent’s qi (their physical energy, force and intent). When your Qi is strong, your nervous system is more sensitive and your feeling of qi is more profound. You can “listen” and follow with your opponent (as in Chi Sao and push hands).
2. Helps you to extend your Qi (and “listening Jing”; 聽勁, tīng jìng) to the tip of your sword.

 

In the classical Chinese medicine meridian system, it is believed by joining your thumb and ring finger allows you to circle and collect the Yin Qi, the pointing fingers extend and shoot the Yang Qi out. The external styles may hold the hand form stiff and use it as a counterbalance. The internal styles will be more gentle to move the qi. Sword training is often accompanied by specific sword qigong exercises.

 

Ancient Chinese Martial Arts Proverbs

jian zou qing; dao zou hei

“Sword, executed by lightness; saber, executed by viciousness.”

Sword performance should be light and your wrist must be strong enough to move the sword relaxed and light. If wrist is weak, your sword will not be skillful or swift. “Jian zou qing” depends on your strength. If you are strong enough, you can wield a heavy sword as if it were light as a feather. The saber uses tremendous muscular power, using violent power to cut and block.

 

“Bai ri quan, Qian ri qiang, Wan ri jian”

“100 days of fist, 1000 days of spear, 10,000 days of sword.”

 

“Bai ri quan” – your foundation of empty hand martial arts can be built in 100 days.

“Qian ri qiang” – it takes approximately three years to build good staff and spear foundations.

“Wan ri jian” – it requires 30 years of practice to fully develop.

 

“Jian wei bai bing zhi wang”

The sword is king of a hundred weapons.

Chinese Saber | 刀 | dāo

Author with Dadao (big saber)

Qing Dynasty (1644-1912) military officer’s saber

Introduction

The saber is called the “leader” of short weapons. This is because the fundamental training and techniques of the saber apply to most short weapons and form their foundation. This is why the saber is most often the first short weapon trained in the traditional arts. Proper basic training is important in order learn correct movement, but also to understand the meaning and application of every movement.

In the traditional practice method, students learned the basic movements and strokes, then progressed to learning short sequences and forms, before moving on to partner drills and free form sparring. This is in contrast to the method often used today where the student starts out learning the form sets. Sequences are simply combinations of basic techniques or variations of basic techniques.

Just practicing form alone without applications will not necessarily develop speed and power, much less combat skills. With enough practice in the basics, one can construct their own sequences. This is how masters (past and present) are able compose forms, because they have more knowledge and experience with the basic fundamentals, not because they know more form. This experience comes from practicing basic drill.

Dāo (刀; saber), Qiāng (槍; spear), Jiàn (劍; sword), and Gùn (棍; staff) form the basis for all classical Chinese weapons training. Dao is the commander of the short weapons; it is the foundation of all the short weapons skills. About 70% of all Chinese short weapons share fundamentals and basic training with the dao. Even though jian is often viewed as the the highest of the short weapons, it shares a foundation with the dao.

Structure and Design

The Chinese character for “saber” (刀) translates literally as “knife”. In Chinese martial arts, this term refers to any single-edged weapon. In Chinese weaponry a saber has a blade more than 1.5 inches wide. The specific structure, construction and design of the weapon was dependent upon the geographical location of origin, martial techniques employed, and the sword wielder’s personal preference.

The saber was first created in the Shang Dynasty (1766-1122 BCE). During the Han Dynasty (206 BC-221 CE) the blades at this time were straight, without curve, and this saber became popular amongst the cavalry, often replacing the wide military use of the double edge sword. This change in standard military equipment came about because dao proficiency is easier to achieve than jian proficiency. The curved construction of the saber appeared after the Song Dynasty (1127-1279 CE).

Originally, sabers were constructed of bronze, then iron and finally steel. The Tang era (618-907 CE) sabers were exported to Korea and Japan. The Cave Saber, or Wo Dao, was imported to Japan during the Song Dynasty (960-1280 CE) and became the precursor to the samurai katana. The Cave Saber was a favorite weapon used by officers in the Qing military (1644-1912). Miao Dao, “Seedling” or “Sprout” saber (also known as Changdao “Long Saber”, or Dadao “Big Saber”), gained some popularity during the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 CE). During the Yuan (Mongolian) dynasty of the 13th century, the Curved Steppe Saber became popular.

Cave Saber

“Sprout” saber

Steppic Calvary saber

Mongolian saber

In the mid-to-late Ming period, The saber completely replaced the straight sword as a military weapon. Chinese soldiers often carried long and short range weapons; primary and secondary. Even as late as World War II, Chinese soldiers used Da Dao and Miao Dao on the battlefield to fight the Japanese imperialists.

Chinese soldiers during WWII carried sabers to fight the Japanese in close combat.

There are many types of sabers depending on the style. For the Dan Dao (“single knife/saber”), first you must look at the length, then the design. The longest modern Chinese martial art saber is the Bagua Dao. It is long because Baguazhang is an internal style and uses “internal”  power (focusing on developing a strong body core), which is trained and utilized through the practice of such a long weapon.

                                                   Fu Zhensong (1872–1953) with Bagua dao

Cheng Youxin with dao used by Bagua Zhang security guards

With the Yang Taijiquan saber the upward part of the guard is used for blocking and locking, while the downward section is used for sliding. The spine section towards the tip is sharp, just as with the standard saber. Taiji saber is not as wide or heavy as the standard saber; it is thinner and lighter. This is because it’s style uses softer movement and higher levels of skill, rather than raw physical power. The handle is also longer so that when one becomes tired in battle, a two-hand grip can be utilized.

Taijiquan style saber

The short saber, often called the Butterfly sword (He Die Dao) is most often seen today in southern styles, though traditionally it was used in the northern regions as well. It is most often used in pairs, or with a shield (often lighters saber, of all styles, were used with a shield), because of the extreme short range of this weapon. Another variation is the Executioner’s saber, or Kan Dao. There is a Da Kan Dao and a Xiao Kan Dao (big and small). At times rings were added for increased weight and/or a longer handle was added.

Late Qing Dynasty fighters with spear (left) & shield and short saber (right).

Modern Butterfly saber

Classical Butterfly saber

Classical Butterfly saber

One of the most common saber styles today is the Liu Ye Dao or Willow-leaf saber. It is most often found in northern martial arts and is very thin and light for speed. The Ox Tail was a style of saber favored for less skilled swordsmen because it can deliver a more powerful cut than the Willow Leaf or Goose Quill Sabers. In other words, if you’re removing pounds of flesh, it’s less important where you cut. Accordingly, it was favored by martial artists with less time for training, i.e. peasants, tradesmen, farmers, etc. vs. professional military, bodyguards and so on. The “Goose Feather” saber, or Yan Ling Dao, came into use during the Song Dynasty (960 – 1280 CE). The Goose Quill (good for thrusting), and Willow Leaf (slashing; used by cavalry) sabers were primarily used by the military. The Ox Tail (niu wei dao) was comparatively heavy, appearing in the late Qing dynasty, and was almost exclusively a civilian weapon which was was not issued to soldiers.

Oxtail Saber

Goose Feather (left) & Willow Leaf (right)Sabers

Goose Feather/Quill Saber

In general, the Northern style saber is longer than its Southern counterparts. It can be light to take advantage of speed, or heavy to increase the cutting power. Since the Southern style saber tends to be shorter, it is used for more short-range fighting. Often, when speaking of styles of saber, the Willow-Leaf Saber refers to a longer and lighter weapon, and an Ox-Tail saber refers to a shorter and heavier one.

“Internal” style saber, such as the Bagua Dao, is usually longer than the standard saber and is used to focus internal power (meaning using the body rather than the arm strength) and take advantage of internal strength. Since the BaGua saber is long and heavy, it is performed slower and requires a physically and internally strong practitioner.

Modern sabers for martial arts practice are modeled after the Ming Dynasty style and later. The guards are cup shaped to prevent rainwater from getting into the sheath, or blood from dripping down the handle. Hilts may have a lanyard like the jians. When grasped by the hand guard and held behind the practitioner’s arm, relaxed at their side, the length of the weapon should be at about the height of the earlobe. The handle is short; designed for only one hand to grasp.

The spine of the blade is used to block or bounce the enemy’s weapon away. The bottom third of the blade is thick and dull so it can be used for heavy blocks. The sharpened portion of the blade should avoid striking other weapons in order to protect the cutting edge and the integrity of the steel.

Different types of classical Chinese saber

Grip

There are differing methods of gripping the weapon’s handle depending upon the specific system or style, but generally one grips the saber primarily with the thumb, middle, and ring finger of the right hand. The index and little finger will hold the handle more lightly and support the grip. The little finger will flex and help control in downward cutting movements; the index finger helps support upward strokes. Your wrist should be relaxed but held firmly for strength and stability during movement. Do not hold the grip or wrist too tightly or the saber will not be “alive,” or swift, responsive, and adaptable. The support hand will brace the sword wrist for striking power or counter-swing back for balance, in order to hold back some of the weight of the strike so one does not overextend. While moving, the hand and grip will coordinate with the waist, and the waist coordinates with the root.

You want to have a flexible grip. The three fingers will hold close to the guard. Two fingers on the grip is too loose, and five is too stiff. The handle of the weapon is curved rather than straight because in battle, as you get tired and sweaty, a straight handle could more easily slip from the hand, and the curve helps maintain your hold. The empty hand will always assist by balancing to the other side, pushing the saber, and also physically pulling the saber arm when cutting across. It will assist the speed and power of techniques.

Shaolin Single Saber | Shàolín dāndāo | 少林單刀

Single saber is a basic Shaolin weapons practice. The saber has many styles and routines. Different saber sets can have very different characteristics and patterns of movement. The single saber is characterized by quick, powerful movements. There are also often many repetitive movements. The predominant techniques are hacking or slashing and thrusting. This style commonly employs strikes as blocks and blocks as strikes.

The basic techniques of saber include:

• Chop
• Block
• Uppercut
• Stab
• Sweep
• Press
• Hack

Dāo (刀)  is often translated as “wide-blade sword”. The cloth commonly seen today at the end of the handle was used to distract the opponent and to wipe off blood on the blade. Even more common, and practical, was the use of a cord or rope as a lanyard to prevent loss of the weapon in combat. The structure and construction of the saber depended on the geographical area, techniques of the style, and personal preference.

Usually, the back edge of the blade was dull, except near the tip. The upper third of the blade was much sharper than the rest. Often the Northerners preferred longer swords that were not very heavy in order to emphasize faster movement. On the other hand, in the south they preferred shorter and heavier blades.

The Shaolin saber performance should be steady, exact, and forceful. Each movement should be direct and firm. All the techniques are strong and forceful. The type of saber style was often not thought of as an advanced level method; it was simple and used for hacking, slashing and thrusting. It was a common infantry weapon and on the battlefield it may even have been made of low quality metal and would take heavy damage. When stabbing and cutting, look at the point of the blade; put your concentration there in order to focus your intent.

 

More on the Chinese saber to come soon…

“Dao” Chinese calligraphy.

Chinese Spear, King of the Battlefield 中國槍 (中國枪) / Zhōngguó Qiāng

Heavy Spear

The spear evolved very early in the history of Chinese martial practice. The earliest spear constructions were most likely made by cutting an angle into the end of a piece of bamboo or a tapered staff (gun qiang). The lengths varied depending on the individual practitioner’s height and the particular methods they employed in its use.

The horsehair tassel is a common and recognizable quality to the Chinese variations of the spear, though it was not a universal addition, and many weapons lacked this particular feature. However, when it was used, it was not a mere aesthetic consideration, it served two primary functions.

First, long and thick tassels could serve the purpose of being used to distract the enemy. But much more importantly, the thick hair could collect blood, and other fluid, preventing the flow of blood from the blade onto the shaft of the weapon. Slick, viscous blood and other internal fluids could cover the shaft and the warrior’s hands, making the weapon more difficult to grip and control. Additionally, as the blood began to dry, it could become sticky, interfering with the grip changes and slides that are common in Chinese spear fighting methods. In either circumstance, the condition would make combat even more dangerous. Because of this function, the hair tassel was called the “blood stopper” (xue dang).

The body of a heavy and powerful spear could be made of metal. These weapons were strong and heavy, but as such, their use in combat was slower, less adaptable and not as responsive. In consideration of the desired quality of speed in the spear, many spear shafts were made of a variety of different types of wood, thus increasing the speed and adaptability of the methods employed.

Not only was a wooden shaft weapon lighter, but we should not overlook the fact that this was a much easier and cheaper method for outfitting large numbers of troops. Replacement shafts could also be easily transported, or found growing and harvested almost anywhere there is abundant vegetation. It was not uncommon in many periods in history for conscripted troops to be required to provide their own weapons and equipment. It would not be uncommon for peasant troops to be unable to purchase or own fine equipment, therefore a dagger firmly lashed to a wooden pole would be a real option.

One common wood, which is still most often used today, was white wax wood (bai la gan), or the Chinese privet which grows in northern China. This type of wood was valued because it is both hard and has a flexible quality. This flexible quality is used often in Chinese spear methods for both attack and defense. Rattan was also utilized, especially in southern China.

Regardless of the type of wood used, it was often soaked in oil for several months, or possibly years, to increase resilience and strength, to make them resistant to moisture, mold, heat and cold, and to increase the overall lifespan of the weapon.  

Spears were, along with the bow, perhaps the most widely utilized ancient military weapon. Chinese troops used spears in all manner of fighting situations; in battles where both soldiers were mounted, both were on the ground, only one was mounted, or welded from or against those on chariots. It is called the “King of the long weapons” on the ancient Chinese battlefield, and even proved to be superior in the age of firearms when used against the western bayonet in the close range fighting scenario. It is light and therefore can be used with quickness and agility, its movements often being said to be like the body of an undulating dragon. For a foot soldier, the length could be from 7 to 12 feet long; when used from horseback, it could be upwards of 18 feet long!

The main offensive method is simple stabbing and thrusting, and its primary advantage would have been its reach, and lightning fast quickness when deployed against the shorter weapons. When used defensively, the spear can be “wrapped” around an enemy’s weapon, weakening or destroying their grip. The major disadvantage to this weapon is that it’s relatively lighter construction cannot directly block or stand up to clashes with heavy weapons. Additionally, while the basic techniques and methods are simple and easy to execute, it can also be subtle and extremely difficult to master the use of the spear.

“Qiang ru you long; jian ru fei feng.”

Spear is like a swimming Dragon; sword is like a flying Phoenix.

Changquan Qiang (long-fist spear) 

Staff Method (棍術 / gùn shù)

The staff is one of the most simple and ancient of all martial arts weapons, evolving from a simple long stick or club. The use of the long stick in Chinese martial arts dates back to at least the legendary period of Huang Di (the mythical Yellow Emperor 2697 to 2597 BCE), and most likely even earlier.

Staff fighting was raised to a supreme art by generations of Shaolin monks. Over time, staff skills and the Temple became synonymous. The monks heavily favored the staff and its methods because it had no blades, and as most traveling monks (or travelers in general) carried walking staffs, they could keep with the practitioner at all times without attracting undue attention or suspicion. The staff was also the weapon of the Shaolin Temple’s protection deity; Vajrapani.

Image of the Shaolin Temple protector deity, Vajrapani / Kimnara

Monk Jinnaluo, who helped defend the Temple from attack in the 14th century, was later believed to have been an incarnation of the protector deity because of his staff skill.

The methods and styles of the staff were many and varied and, even without blades, in the hands of a skilled practitioner could be quite deadly. Distinct Shaolin staff methodologies most likely originated in the Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE) and was the primary martial method of the vast majority of Shaolin practitioners through the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 CE). At that time empty-handed fighting methods took on greater importance in the Qing Dynasty, beginning in 1644 A.D. Until the Ming or Qing dynasty, it was not unheard of for some warrior monks to only practice (and master) staff methods to the exclusion of all other weapons and even empty-handed styles.

The circumference of a long rod was such that the tips of the thumb and first finger of its carrier just touched around it. The length differed from the north of China to the south. Northern martial artists tended to carried long rods that reached the base of their wrist when the arm was extended straight up over the head. The southern fighter’s long rod generally reached only their eyebrow (thus it was often called an eyebrow staff, or three-quarter length staff). Of course these are just generalizations and were not firm rules. Regardless of the length, the weapon was often soaked in an oil to increase strength and resilience.

Occasionally, they were also made of brass or iron, and either solid or hollow. A solid staff made a heavy and powerful weapon, whereas a hollow one was designed to be comparatively lighter for speed. Aside from the increased striking power of a metal staff, the weapon itself had the distinct advantage of being invulnerable to bladed weapons, as opposed to the wooden variety.

Four Classical Chinese Weapons

The weapons used by traditional gongfu masters originate mainly from ancient military weapons. The Eighteen Arms, the term used to describe gongfu weaponry, includes the saber, spear, sword, halberd, axe, battle axe, hook, fork, whip, mace, hammer, talon, trident-halberd, cudgel, long-handled spear, short cudgel, stick and meteor hammer. Some weapons are used to fight at a distance, while others at close range. Some are overt whereas others are covert. Some are hard while others are soft. Their functions are wide ranging – they beat, kill, hit, shoot and block with cutting blades, hooks, points or blunt force.

Proficiency in gongfu involves being skilled with the techniques and usage of the Eighteen-Arms. A brief introduction to the weapons and their individual characteristics follows.

 

Four Major Weapons

The four major weapons – staff, saber, spear, and sword – have been widely used by gongfu practitioners since ancient times in many different styles of martial arts. They are also the main weapons in modern gongfu practice. If one is able to develop proficiency in the use of all four primary classical weapons, one has the foundational skill to utilize almost any traditional Chinese hand-held weapon, regardless of its specific individual construction or characteristics.

Staff

The staff or stick is called the “father of all weapons” meaning all other weapons were developed from it. As the staff is easy to make and use, and is practical, it became a very popular weapon. Staff play lays stress on the sweeping action so the old martial arts saying goes, “with a cudgel you sweep all around.” Some techniques employed for other weapons (such as spear and saber) can also be used in staff work. There are many basic techniques of staff practice, among the most commonly used are chopping, swinging, jabbing, hanging, jumping, leaping, smashing, pointing, blocking, sheltering, holding, piercing, floating, carrying, poking, and lifting.

The different schools of staff have different emphasis. Generally, staff is executed as “quickly as heavy rainfall” and strategies combine offense and defense, always changing the methods. The Staff is most often made of wood but some are made of metal. In addition to long staff, there are short and medium lengths, as well as two-section cudgel and three-section varieties of staff.

 

Saber

Saber is called the “Marshal of all weapons.” It is one of the most used weapons in Chinese gongfu. According to the shape and size, it is divided into short-handled Saber, twin short-handled saber, saber, nine-ring saber (named because of nine rings on the blade’s spine), broad saber, long-bladed short-handle saber, etc.

Saber play is vigorous and quick in defense and offense so it is likened to a “fierce tiger.” The main techniques of saber play include chopping, hacking, cutting, breaking, lifting, thrusting, winding, blocking, pushing, and striking. When you practice saber, the cooperation between the saber and the hands is very important and both hands must closely coordinate with each other, so as to maintain balance. Saber play calls for rigorous training and constant practice. The saber and the body must also be consistent. Make sure that saber is always around your body, and your hands, feet, shoulders, and arms turn together with the saber.

 

Spear

The spear is called the “King of all weapons.” It is one of the major long-shaft gongfu weapons. There are many different types of spear, such as the Plum Flower spear, bold spear, zigzag spear, double-head spear with blades on both sides. The spear was the major military weapon in ancient times and is versatile, using both large and compact technique. The main characteristic of spear play are flexibility in body movements, lightness, agility and footwork, quickness and steadiness in turns and somersaults. The movements are clear and practical.

Spear play is likened to the “flying Dragon”. Spear play is very difficult, but it has a great effect on strengthening the body. The basic techniques of spear play include pricking, thrusting, circling, blocking, pointing, poking, holding and wringing. When you practice, you are advised to hold the spear firmly and flexibly, advance and retreat freely and smoothly, pricking the opponent quickly and directly, with the force on the point of the spear. This is one of the important basic skills in spear play. When you hold the spear, it must be close to your waist for support so that you can exert your force easily. In all routines of spear play, the point of the spear moves in a circle, which is regarded as the fundamental of all styles of spear play and requires hard practice.

 

Sword

The sword is called the “gentleman of all weapons.” It is the most widely used of all weapons and its influence goes beyond the field of gongfu. Every school of gongfu uses the sword as the basic weapon for rigorous training.

Swordplay in China was first seen in sacrificial offerings to the gods or ancestors. In the Spring and Autumn Period and during the Warring States 2000 years ago, swordplay became a common practice in society. After years of refinement, it is now one of the major competitive events in gongfu competition today.

Swordplay is quick, agile, elegant, loose, graceful and natural in action. The movements are flexible as well as variable. Attention is paid to both motion and stillness. Hardness and suppleness supplement each other. So swordplay is likened to the “flying Phoenix.” There are many techniques of swordplay. The main techniques include hitting, piercing, pointing, lifting, jumping and leaping, hanging, chopping, floating, poking, sweeping, wrestling, blocking, and wiping. These actions, combined with body movements and footsteps, form various routines of swordplay.

There are varied styles of swordplay routines, handed down from ancient times. The popular ones include Taiji, Wudang, Bodhidharma, Longxing, Sancai, Qingping, Baxian (Eight-Immortals), Mantis, Lianhuan, drunkard, and Xingyi. The Chinese Physical Culture and Sports Commission has also worked out new routines for competition and physical exercise.

It is said that the Chinese swordplay, although a simple form of play with hand weapons, has deep ideological connotations. For emperors, high-ranking military officers and ministers to common people, experts and scholars, the wearing of swords showed them to be a refined person signifying they are cultured and familiar with the arts. The skill and theory of swordplay was perfected and eventually formed a distinctive “sword culture” in China.

Introduction to Chinese Weapons Training

During the Tang and Song Dynasties (from the 900s to late 1300s) weapons fighting was the basis of Chinese military arts training. These skills took form and were perfected during this time. Empty-handed fighting remained rudimentary by comparison during this period.

Complex hand systems evolved much later in the late Ming and early Qing eras. While sophisticated hand methods may have been founded and built upon older principles, the majority of the arts and forms practiced today (in their current form) had their genesis no earlier than the early to middle Qing Dynasty (1600s – 1800s).

Today in most traditional martial arts schools, weapons training only begins in any earnestness after significant time spent in fundamental empty-handed practice, and some proficiency has been gained in these skills. The logic here is that one should develop certain skills before adding a more complex and  potentially dangerous element. However, this is a relatively new view in the overall history of Chinese martial arts.

Shaolin Temple records are one of, if not the greatest, single source for Chinese martial arts history. This is because of several factors. Many ancient martial arts masters were highly secretive and would not have chosen to record much of their fighting methods; they guarded their military skills no different than how nations guard their secrets today. However, even if they would have been willing to leave written records, many ancient fighters were illiterate. Most fighters became professional martial artists (bodyguards, couriers, soldiers, etc.) out of necessity and not choice. The vast majority would have come from small, poor, farming communities, and would not have received a classical education.

Today we have a romanticized view of the highly educated scholar warriors and monk warriors presented in movies, video games, and other popular outlets. While such individuals did indeed exist, they were a comparatively small group. As a result, the vast majority of professional martial artists would have been unable to leave written records. However, at the Shaolin Temple, the resident monks would have had the ability to read and write in order to study and copy Buddhist texts. In addition, the Temple enjoyed great fame through many periods of Chinese history, and as such it would be a place rich and powerful families would send their sons for Buddhist education. It  was even a place where many Imperial officials, and military generals or officers would retire after ending their careers as agents of the throne. Many of these individuals would have been among the most highly educated individuals in all of the empire and learned in all aspects of classical Chinese culture.

Additionally, the Shaolin Temple enjoyed a higher level of protection from the dynastic governments than did other temple and monasteries because of its fame and the fact it had been a place of pilgrimage for many rulers.

All of these factors combined to make the records of the Shaolin Temple some of the largest and most extensive records on Chinese martial arts throughout history. What these records show us is that even at the Temple, emphasis on empty-handed martial arts is a relatively new occurrence, taking hold during the Qing Dynasty, a little more than 400 years ago.

When martial arts existed as battlefield and war arts, weapons were always used. A soldier had to be trained in the use of their primary, as well as backup, battle weapons and empty-handed fighting skills were much less valued because they were not as useful for the battlefield. Just like modern military soldiers, if the ancient warrior got to the point of fighting with their hands, that means they had lost all of their weapons; several things had gone wrong in that engagement.

Most empty-handed fighting methods in these times were rudimentary. But the weapons training was highly emphasized and extremely sophisticated. Then in the Qing Dynasty there was an explosion of highly refined empty-handed systems. This is due to several converging factors, one of which is because of the introduction of firearms to warfare in China. As guns became more prevalent in war, personal fighting skills lost value. Eventually, martial arts became arts of self-cultivation (which was also a fairly new concept) and even when used directly for combat, it was often in the realm of organized contests or private duels.

Chinese martial arts weapons training is built around the four primary weapons (staff, saber, spear, and sword). Many systems have many weapons sets, and traditionally there are considered 18 major classifications of weapons. However, a student’s basic weapons education would encompass these four basic constructions, and their techniques can be adapted to all similarly constructed weapons. One would also have some idea of what to expect from an opponent’s weapon style. Familiarity with several types of weapons gave a fighter a better understanding of how an opponent might utilize a weapon should they use one that is similar. Similar weapons will have similar techniques, and just as there are only so many ways to punch and kick, there are only so many ways to swing and thrust a weapon.

History and Evolution of Shaolin Temple Staff Fighting (Part 2)

It is not precisely known (as a historical fact) when or by whom, martial arts training was first introduced into Shaolin. Being a major and important monastery, and close to the ancient Imperial capital, Shaolin would have been a place Imperial officials would retire (or reside there for long periods of retreat), to spend their later years  in study, meditation and contemplation. Many of these officials were soldiers and officers in the military. They would not have forgotten their military skills, and the spear was a common military implement. Most spear techniques are applicable, or easily modifiable into non-cutting staff techniques. Well-trained, and disciplined martial artists would want to keep up with their practice, and although they were not officially allowed to train with blades in the Temple, the staff would have been the natural alternative. Martial arts training would have also appealed to the young male novices, and Temple officials may even have encouraged some type of martial practice for health, as well as to productively channel the energies of young men who may have found it challenging adapting to monastic life.

Although, as mentioned, the Temple has been attacked and partially or completely destroyed on numerous occasions, the Shaolin monks and their Temple were spared from numerous other attempts by various Emperors throughout history to persecute and purge Buddhism from the country. They were also spared some of the numerous confiscations of lands and holdings due to their history of military assistance to the throne. This started with the Emperor Taizong (598 – 649 CE), the second ruler of the Tang Dynasty (618 – 907 CE). There is still a stone tablet at the Shaolin Temple, provided by the Emperor, commemorating this event.

The Shaolin Monastery Stele on Mount Song (皇唐嵩岳少林寺碑), also known as Stele of Li Shimin (李世民碑), which chronicles the history of Shaolin Monastery up to the stele’s erection in 728 AD, written by Pei Cui (裴漼, d. 736 AD), the title of the stele was personally calligraphed by the then Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (r. 713 – 756 AD), it contains the event of the battle between Prince of Qin Li Shimin and Wang Shichong (王世充) during the Transition from Sui to Tang Period.

 

Stone tablets in Shaolin Temple courtyard.

This history of being loyal and of great benefit to the throne, from almost the start of the temple’s history, allowed Shaolin’s religious and martial activities to be relatively undisturbed and uninterrupted, at least compared to other monasteries, early on in its history.

This tablet is a decree from the Emperor, stating that the Temple was permitted to train and maintain monastic troops. Yet, coming from the Emperor himself, this “permission” may have been less of a freedom and more of a command and expectation. Not just commemorating their service to the Tang Dynasty, the tablet may have been a reminder to the Shaolin authorities that they had proved themselves of great benefit to the nation and its ruler, and that they may be called upon to provide further service in the future. Regardless, Shaolin’s military activities were key to the monasteries prosperity. The military assistance rendered to the Emperor Taizong was, perhaps, the only assurance of its welfare.

This assistance to the Tang Dynasty occurred at what is referred to as the Battle of the Cypress Estate, which occurred on May 23, 621 CE. At that time, the lands the Shaolin Temple controlled included the mountain road to the capital city. To the west of the Temple was an area called the Cypress Estate, and this is where the Sui Dynasty commander Wang Shichong and his army were occupying, with the clear intention to control the mountain road that accesses the capital city of Luoyang which was only 35 miles from the Shaolin Temple. Believing Wang’s army was preparing to seize the Temple itself, the monks allied with Wang’s enemy, Li Shimin. Forces from the Shaolin Temple defeated Wang’s Army and captured the commander’s nephew, with only 13 soldier monks. Among the names of these 13 warrior monks were Zhi Cao, Hei Yang, and Tan Zong. Li Shimin’s father became the first Emperor of the Tang Dynasty, with Shimin becoming the second Tang Emperor in 626. This episode is well documented not only in a stone tablet at the temple from that period, but also in Imperial records, and the records of Dengfeng County (where Shaolin Temple is located) magistrates.

The Shaolin Temple continued to flourish and promote their teachings through the Tang, Song and Southern Song dynasties, which finally gave way in the 13th century under the pressure of Mongol expansions.

The Mongolian ruler Kublai Khan (1215 – 1294; also known as Emperor Shizu), first Emperor of the Mongolian Yuan Dynasty of China (1271 – 1368) appointed Monk Xueting Fuyu (1203 –1275) as Abbot of the Shaolin Buddhist Monastery. At that same time, Kublai Khan decreed that Shaolin Monastery was to function as the arch monastic institution in China, which was responsible for overseeing all the Buddhist monasteries across China. With over 2,000 active monks, the Temple promoted charitable works and worked diligently toward fully developing Shaolin martial arts. Fuyu also established several branches of the Shaolin Temple, away from the primary monastery on Mt. Song, in Henan. These Shaolin Temple branches were believed to have been established in Heilin (Outer Mongolia), Yanji, Chang an, Taiyan and Luoyang.

Abbot Fuyu is, perhaps, most famous for inviting talented martial artists from all over the country to the Temple to discuss, practice, fight and exchange, for the specific purpose of cultivating and refining their methods into one distinct Shaolin style. He held these symposiums three times during his tenure, each for a period of three years. As these martial artists returned to their homes across China, they brought back these Shaolin techniques with them. This is one of the primary reasons why so many Asian martial arts systems can trace their roots to the Shaolin Temple and why the Temple is sometimes known as “The birthplace of martial arts”. Although not factually the origin of the martial arts in Asia, the methods and influence of the Temple and their efforts during this time had a profound and lasting effect on so many systems of martial arts (and by extension the systems that they influenced and produced) in the form and structure in which they have come to us today.

The Shaolin monks are believed to have received early inspiration for staff fighting by emulating the mythological Buddhist protector spirit, Vajrapani. In traditional iconography, he wielded a thunderbolt, but at Shaolin he is always depicted with a staff. Vajrapani is featured in Buddhist mythology as a type of military and protector god who bestows strength. In some Shaolin Temple schools to this day, Vajrapani takes the traditional place of General Guanyu as the embodiment and patron saint of the martial spirit.

It is the depiction of Vajrapani who is usually split into two spirits whose representations stand guard on either sides, just on the interior of the temple gates. These protector spirits are found throughout Buddhist temples and monasteries in East Asia. It is a small and logical step that the monks of Shaolin would turn to this representation for inspiration (as well as justification) for their martial activities.

 

The oldest existing manual dedicated to Shaolin staff fighting, which we can historically authenticate, is Cheng Zongyou’s work titled Exposition of the Original Shaolin Staff Method (shaolin gunfa chan zong). Cheng was a military expert who put together his Exposition as an extensive work compiled around 1610. He came from a well-known and noble family, who were noted scholars and degree and holders.

It should be noted there are certainly works that claim to be older, however as books in ancient times had to be continually re-copied and reprinted, the actual original age of many of these works can be difficult to historically verify. The oldest extant original copy of a martial record we have today are woodblock editions of a book by the Ming Dynasty General Qi Ji Guang (1528-1587) dating to approximately 1584. General Qi himself is noted to have esteemed Shaolin Temple’s fighting staff methods, writing about them in 1561 and incorporating one of Shaolin temple’s staff routines into his martial arts training manual titled, New Book on Effective Military Techniques.

In addition to the staff manual, Master Cheng is also noted to have compiled less extensive manuscripts on spear, long saber, and archery. Cheng and his writings arise at an important transition period in Chinese martial arts history. Previously martial arts were seen as the realm of the military and the lower social classes. However, around this time the literati took interest in martial arts. Due to their affluent economic circumstances, they had more free time to dedicate to practice, as well as the educational ability and intellectual inclination to preserve written records of the arts they were passionate about. Without the efforts of highly skilled martial artists from the scholarly class during this period and moving forward, Chinese martial arts may not have evolved as far, perhaps even with many styles dying out entirely.

While not a monk but rather a lay disciple, Cheng is believed to have written and made great efforts to disseminate the Exposition of the Original Shaolin Staff Method in order to increase the fame of his Shaolin monk teachers, and to promote the reputation of the Shaolin school where he received his education. In the book he describes the weapon of the Shaolin staff can be made of either wood or iron.

Examples from Cheng’s Text

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

If the weapon is made of wood, as a general guideline, it should measure from 8 to 9 feet in length, weighing 3 to 4 pounds. The circumference of the base end ideally should be the size of the thumb and index finger when joined together in a circle. The staff can really be made of any type of wood, though the Shaolin style has often preferred what is referred to as “white wax wood” which is a type of broad-leaf privet (Ligustrum lucidum). The wood would a also commonly be soaked for extended periods in a linseed oil, or other sealing oil, to increase the durability and life of the stick. If made of iron, Cheng outlines that the staff should be 7.5 to 8 feet long and weigh from 19 to 21 pounds.

He distinguishes between 53 individual staff positions (methods, techniques, or patterns). Each had illustration and explanation. The individual positions are strung together into practice sequences. Finally, several practice sequences combine into a “method,” what is often referred to today as a specific practice form or set (taolu).

Another work from this era, Records of Military Tactics (zhenji) by the commander He Liangchen, clearly indicates the Shaolin martial arts, particularly staff methods, had been widely transmitted within monastic circles. The Shaolin Temple, being a historically and religiously important site, would have been a destination for many wandering religious practitioners. This circumstance would further contribute to the evolution and propagation of the Shaolin methods.

However, not all sources of the time were unanimous in their complementing of the Shaolin methods. The military expert, and famed staff practitioner, General Yu Dayou (1503–1579; a well-known general in the fight against Japanese invaders in 1555; author of historically important martial books including the Zheng Qi Hall Anthology, and The Sword Classic, which is actually about the staff rather than the sword), was documented as having been critical of Shaolin staff methods. General Yu even went so far as to take two promising young monks under his tutelage, Zong Qing and Pu Cong, for three years in an effort to improve Shaolin staff ability. It should be noted that while General Yu’s  methods did not survive long, this is yet another example displaying the influence of Shaolin martial arts during this time. The General’s association with the monastery reveals a connection between two segments of late Ming society which did not often mingle, the religious and the military. The General treated Shaolin monks as fellow professionals, ones with whom he freely exchanged ideas on the technicalities of his professional field. His conception of their monastery as a military institution enriches our understanding of the multiple roles the Temple played in late Ming society.

The records of Master Cheng, General Qi, General Yu, and Commander He, among many others, from the late 1500s and early 1600s, show the Shaolin Temple as more than just a monastery and religious institution. Clearly they had begun to take on non-monastic martial disciples in decent numbers, and it also functioned in the capacity of a type of boarding school or military academy (a type of ancient West Point Academy). Patrons of the Temple from all around the country could send their young sons (or daughters in the case of the associated female only Yongtai nunnery) to receive a formal academic, as well as martial, education.

Another reason for the growing interest in Shaolin fighting during this time was the decline of the regular Ming Dynasty army. By the mid-16th century, the Imperial Army was significantly undermanned and poorly organized for a professional military fighting force. The situation was so bad that in 1550 a Mongol Prince was even able to freely loot the suburbs of the capital city of Beijing.

Particular attention was given to the Shaolin monks military capabilities following their heavy contribution in the mid-16th century campaign against piracy. Several 16th century sources attest that in 1553, during the height of the pirate raids, military officials mobilized monastic troops from Shaolin, as well as other temples, though Ming authors routinely considered Shaolin monastic troops the best.

The hero Shaolin monk Yue Kong put together a unit of 30 of his disciples. They confronted the group of Japanese pirates near Shanghai. Armed only with iron staffs, they are said to have killed a large number of Pirates before all of them were slain in combat.

The biggest victory of the campaign was in July, 1553, when 120 fighting monks defeated a large group of pirates. For 10 days the monks fought along a 20 mile stretch of coast. More than 100 pirates were killed, with the monks taking only four casualties. The Shaolin commanders of these actions against the pirates are still memorialized with burial stupas in the Pagoda Forest burial ground outside the Temple.

While the victories in the anti-piracy campaign are well known and promoted, not all recorded military actions of the Temple ended so well. For example, previously, In 1511, 70 monks died fighting the bandit armies that swept through Hebei and Henan. The loss of so many skilled monks would have been deeply felt in the relatively small community of the Shaolin Temple.

By this point in the Ming Dynasty, the Shaolin Temple had a long-established history of having a deep relationship with the Imperial rulers. The Temple supported the Emperor, and in turn many of the emperors supported and protected the Temple. The monastery continued to support the Ming into its declining last year’s. During the 1630s, Shaolin monks were repeatedly enlisted in the doomed campaigns against the swelling rebel armies that eventually toppled the Ming dynasty in 1644, establishing what was to become the final Chinese Imperial Dynasty, the Manchurian Qing (1644-1912).

This loyalty of the Shaolin Temple to the dying Ming dynasty would lead to its destruction by the Dynasty’s adversaries. In 1641 a bandit warlord name Li Zicheng marched his large rebel army (in the tens of thousands) into Henan, greatly outnumbering the fighters Shaolin could muster, and smashed the Shaolin fighting force. The monastery was destroyed and most of the monks were brutally butchered. This event would leave a powerful and lasting mark on the Shaolin methods of martial arts from that time forward.

As early as the 16th century, some Shaolin monks practiced unarmed fighting predominately. Through the course of the 17th century, they developed sophisticated empty-handed techniques, and by the mid-Qing (18th and early 19th centuries), hand combat methods had eclipsed staff methods as the dominant form of Shaolin martial training.

In the mid-1500s the idea that one should start training with hand combat and the proceed to staff became prevalent. Over time this view spread widely. When the methods of fist and staff are understood, the sword, spear and all other techniques would be especially easy to acquire. This shift in emphasis was most likely the culmination of several factors, not the least of which was to appear less threatening to the newly established Qing dynasty, who already would’ve considered them dangerous as deep loyalists to the deposed Ming rulers. This blending of the war arts with the arts of mental and spiritual development would continue to shape traditional martial arts across East Asia, molding them into the forms we practice to this day.

History and Evolution of Shaolin Temple Staff Fighting (Part 1)

Introduction to Shaolin Staff History

When we practice traditional forms of martial arts (or indeed any form of classical culture) it is important to have a foundational understanding of the cultural and historical context within which they arose. This context significantly and directly contributed to the form and function of these methods as they have come to us today. Every aspect of a traditional art has significance and function (nothing was placed there arbitrarily), whether or not a particular practitioner or teacher is aware of, or can articulate those reasons.

Studying the history of our forebears does not necessarily make us more skilled. In fact, generations of our predecessors, who were highly skilled, were probably quite ignorant of many aspects of the historical evolution of their traditions. However, living in the modern West we are separated by time, culture, language, and so on, from our traditional ancestors. By understanding the cultural and historical contexts of the arts they generated and propagated, we come to understand something about their life and mindset; the ground from which the seeds of our traditions directly sprouted.

I consider traditional martial arts as much a cultural and historical art as it is a method of fighting. Practicing the traditional arts connects me with the experiences and knowledge of people who left this earth long ago. Although there are many aspects of my life today that do not resemble anything a warrior from, say the 12th century, would recognize, we can connect on the level of experience. I can connect, mind to mind, with the experience of these people I will never meet, and most of whose names I will never know. Through training and struggling to cultivate myself, and to understand the methods, I connect with the experience of every practitioner who has ever trained in those methods.

In modern traditional martial arts training, we tend to begin with empty-handed training, then progress to weapons training. The logic here is that if one cannot control their own hands and feet, it will be more difficult for them to properly utilize an external instrument. Yet, this is a fairly new approach in classical Chinese martial arts, and was not the traditional model for much of history.

Many of the oldest systematized methods of Chinese martial arts were intended as military and battlefield arts. Not unlike modern soldiers, empty-handed fighting would have been the last resort of the ancient military warrior. If they were fighting hand-to-hand, a lot had gone wrong up to that point!

For most of Chinese martial arts history, weapons were the primary method of training, and many times it may have been the only method, to the exclusion of empty hand fighting. Weapons training simply made more sense, and many masters of the medieval age would have been proficient with weapons, but not particularly so in barehanded combat.

This was not only true in military circles, but of Shaolin Temple martial arts circles as well. For several reasons, the staff was the symbol of martial arts for centuries. A walking stick was commonly carried by wandering Buddhist and Daoist monks. This would have helped them traverse difficult terrain, and would also have been unassuming; not many people would think twice about a wandering monk with a walking stick. Certainly, it also made a handy defensive tool against wild animals or bandits, should the need arise.

Additionally, in accordance with the first Buddhist precept of refraining from harming or killing human beings (though, as we shall see, this tenant was often bent or broken), Shaolin practitioners would have liked the staff because it lacked a cutting-edge. Other than a small knife or machete used for multiple utility purposes, Chinese Buddhist monks were not permitted to use blades, though, again, this was not always adhered to by Shaolin practitioners. Yet, this lack of a cutting edge in regards to the staff should not be mistaken for a lack of killing potential. Even a fairly lightweight wooden staff, moving at moderate speed, has tremendous crushing and breaking power, much more than would be needed striking against the human body.

There is an old Chinese martial arts saying that goes, “All martial arts under heaven originate from Shaolin.” As a matter of strict historical fact, this is not true. Obviously, martial arts existed prior to Shaolin’s establishment in 495 CE. This saying is really a reference to the impact the Temple (and others like it, though this was considered the most powerful) had on the development of Chinese martial arts. The methods and principles of Shaolin martial arts eventually spread throughout the whole of Asia. I think one would be hard-pressed to find the traditional Asian martial art that does not demonstrate some influence from, or assimilation of, Shaolin techniques, methodologies, or training strategies, either directly or indirectly.

The Temple was also historically important. Shaolin Temple historical and martial records were significant and highly valuable because they had the ability to create and maintain records from a period of time, and on a subject, of which little remains to us.

The modern idea of all ancient gongfu masters being deeply wise and highly educated is romantic, but not historically accurate. For large portions of Chinese history, military service, except at the highest levels, would not have been well-respected, or highly valued in the greater society. Most professional martial artists came from poor rural communities, and were often uneducated and illiterate. People did not generally enter fighting professions out of choice, but rather out of necessity. Those masters who were sufficiently educated, and capable of leaving records, were not often inclined. This was out of a need to maintain a certain level secrecy in their techniques, tactics, and training methods.

Yet, the Monks of Shaolin would clearly have been able to read and write in order to study and copy Buddhist literature. The Shaolin Temple library was known to have contained extensive collections of Chinese history and various topics pertaining to Chinese martial arts, perhaps the most extensive in China. While what remains to us today are some of our most valuable and accurate records on the subjects, much has been lost in the repeated destructions and burnings of the Shaolin Temple, the most recent occurring in 1928.

The monastery’s own martial arts evolved in two general stages. From the 12th to the 16th century, the monks specialized in staff fighting. Prior to that period, they had not developed their own unique styles and systems of martial arts training, but rather collected, albeit extensively, from outside techniques. By the time of the late Ming Dynasty (1368 – 1644), their techniques with staff were generally considered the best in the country, unequaled by any other methods. A second phase can be seen to begin from the 16th century to the present time. Here, the monks perfected their unique unarmed techniques, which over time gradually eclipsed the staff as the dominant form of Shaolin martial practice.